The nineteenth century can be called the time when medicine was fully formed as a science. Mysticism, witchcraft and ecclesiastical practices no longer had a place in medicine.

The knowledge accumulated and processed in previous periods of history began to produce practical results, expressed in an increase in life expectancy, the ability to resist epidemics, a victory over certain diseases, a reduction of infant mortality, which previously was terribly high.

The knowledge about the functioning of the human body already corresponds in many respects to modern ones, although the study of the nervous system and metabolic processes is actively continuing. Darwin’s theory of evolution, Mendel’s discovery of genetics, and the breakthrough in chemistry, thanks to which pharmacology is becoming a separate field, have had a great influence on medicine.

The development of microbiology was no less important. The agents of many infectious diseases were identified (we should not forget that until the beginning of the 20th century infectious diseases were the main cause of death), which led to many practical discoveries, including aseptic and antiseptic ones. Cures for many of them were found. Most serious infections have also been defeated through the development of vaccination and sanitation. Knowledge of infections and their prevention, as well as the use of anesthesia, has improved the survival rate of surgical procedures, providing a further breakthrough in this field of medicine as well.

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One of the earliest substrates to be studied by physicians was urine. There is information about it in extant ancient Chinese, ancient Egyptian, ancient Greek written sources, as well as in the Indian treatise “Ayurveda”.

The color of urine, which can vary from light to dark brown, sometimes red, signaled the first healers, for example, if a patient had some kind of kidney or bladder disease. Doctors in ancient times even selflessly, excuse me, tasted urine: its sweet taste allowed them to diagnose diabetes mellitus.

Blood under the microscope

The basis for the development of clinical laboratory diagnostics is chemistry, physics, and biology, the achievements of which were applied to the study of human biological fluids and tissues. The invention of the microscope played a huge role in the development of diagnostics. Dutch scientist Antonio van Leeuwenhoek, who lived in the 17th century, is known not only as the creator of microscopes, but also as the discoverer of protozoan organisms. Having designed a device that made it possible to see the world at an unimaginable approximation, it would have been strange not to try it out on everything at hand.

So Levenguc discovered infusoria, erythrocytes, described bacteria, yeast, lens fibers, skin epidermis scales, the structure of muscle fibers and eyes of insects.

The ability to examine the tissues and fluids of the human body, and primarily blood, allowed such a science as hematology to develop. It is a branch of laboratory science that studies the properties of blood and its changes in one or another disease. Even today, the examination of a patient for any disease or preventive examination begins with a general blood test.

As the technical qualities of the microscope improved, the properties of blood were described in increasing detail, and it became possible to evaluate the so-called blood formula – the number and characteristics of various forms of erythrocytes, leukocytes, thrombocytes and their ratios.

Decompose color into digits

The microscope also allowed us to look at impurities and cells present in a patient’s urine: salts, small stones, sand, bacteria, white blood cells and red blood cells. Detection of these substances helped diagnose diseases of the urogenital system, as well as diseases associated with disorders of metabolic processes in the body, for example – gout.

Almost simultaneously with the microscope, a colorimeter was created – a device that can translate into digital values the color (density of staining) of a particular liquid substrate. First of all, the colorimeter was used to evaluate the color of urine – which, as we know, has a very rich palette.

Colorimetry is widely used in medical laboratories to this day for quantitative determination of all those substrates, which give colored solutions, or can give a colored soluble substance during a chemical reaction. The concentration of the substance being sought is estimated by the density of the color.

Microscope and colorimeter were not invented specifically for the needs of medicine, but physicians, seeing their great potential, began to widely use them in their practice. These two discoveries prompted the scientific development of clinical laboratory diagnosis. Until then, the term “science” had never been used in this context.

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After the unprecedented rise of Greek medicine, one would have expected that in Rome, which had become the successor of Greece, it would continue to develop on an upward trajectory. However, this did not happen. For certain historical reasons, the decline of science, including medicine, rather began in Ancient Rome. During this era, although outstanding physicians appeared, they rather considered it their duty to serve the wealthy Romans, whose main requirement for treatment was that it should be as unburdensome and pleasant as possible. For the most part, the successes of Roman medicine were due to the work of Greek scholars, especially Hippocrates.

Medical Schools of Ancient Rome

The foundation of medical teaching in ancient Rome was based on knowledge derived from Greek medicine. In the first place the works of Hippocrates were used, containing descriptions of many diseases and methods of their treatment.

Medical schools in ancient Rome appeared in the era of the Republic. It was believed that the physician should have knowledge from a variety of disciplines. Some physicians were trained in military hospitals. By helping the wounded, they acquired new knowledge of anatomy and physiology.

Treatment methods and remedies

The treatment methods used combined medicinal therapy as well as various magical and religious rituals. Physicians knew the benefits of a healthy diet, exercise, daily regimen and fresh air.

Herbal medicine was very widespread in ancient Rome. It is believed that it was the basis of modern knowledge about medicinal plants. Herbs, minerals, and potions made from several different ingredients were used as remedies.

A catalog written by the military physician Dioscorides has come down to this day. It describes about 600 kinds of medicinal plants and nearly 1000 potions that he used to treat his patients. Another source of comprehensive information on medicinal plants was the books of Pliny.

Galen’s teachings

While Hippocrates was the most famous physician in ancient Greece, Claudius Galen was especially revered in Rome. He practiced medicine and science and left a large number of works devoted to pharmacology and therapeutic methods. He described 304 medicinal plants, 80 medicines of animal origin and 60 of mineral origin. He used them in the form of decoctions, infusions, powders, and other forms.

Unlike Hippocrates, Galen believed that medicinal plants, along with their beneficial effects, could have harmful effects. It was the medicinal properties that he tried to “extract” from them. Some of the medicinal preparations first described by him are still in use today.

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Despite the fact that the first written medical sources that have come down to us are the Egyptian papyri, which describe surgical operations and obstetrical practices (Berlin, London, Leiden papyri), the place of origin of modern medicine is considered ancient Greece, although there is no doubt that its origins are in the same Ancient Egypt.

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The ancient Greeks can be considered the founders of scientific thought as such, and of medicine in particular, because it was here that medicine as a science emerged. This means that the Greeks undertook a scientific approach to the information accumulated by that time, although certainly not all of it was reliable. At this time, medicine was divided into temple medicine and, if I may say so, scientific, or evidence-based medicine. Schools emerged in different cities of Greece, each of which developed certain scientific (or pseudoscientific) theories. The god of medicine among the Greeks was Asclepius, son of Apollo, the Roman pronunciation is Aesculapius. Medicines were called “pharmakon” by the Greeks. Asclepius had children, each of whom embodied a particular branch of medicine: Hygiea – hygiene, prevention, Panacea – therapy, Machaon – surgery, Podalarius – internal diseases, Telesphorus – magic. Thus we see that at this time there was already a division of medicine into the main directions, which have generally survived to this day.

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Hippocrates is called the father of medicine, the man who founded one of the Greek schools of medicine and devoted his entire life to medicine. His influence on medicine as a science cannot be overestimated. His numerous writings, which contain descriptions of practices used by physicians to this day, are grouped together in a large collection – the Hippocratic Corpus, the first medical encyclopedia. In addition, as not only a physician but also an outstanding philosopher and thinker, he laid the foundations of medical ethics, and the famous Hippocratic Oath has survived almost unchanged to the present day as a mark of respect for this great man.

THE FACT

In accordance with the principle of Epicurus, “to live sensibly, beautifully, and pleasantly,” Asclepiad introduced the principle of “treating safely, quickly, and pleasantly.” In furtherance of this principle he limited the “emptying” treatment, the use of vomiting, laxatives, and bloodletting and developed a system of restorative treatment.He recommended the observance of home hygiene (light, air), body hygiene (baths, skin care), use of massage, active and passive Movement and doing walks in the air. Walking, running, riding, carriage, boat, ship, etc. were considered useful by Asklepias. If the patient could not move on his own, Asklepias advised carrying and rocking him. In his system, climatic treatment played an important role along with physiotherapy and balneotherapy, according to the modern terminology. He treated medicines with great caution and in some cases he gave pure water under the guise of medicines, explaining to other doctors that in any case it was better than giving poisons. The Asclepiadic system, which opposed the crude methods of “bloodthirsty tormentors and gutters”, made him extremely popular in Rome.

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